Outline of the Nayar of India Essay

The Nayar are a matrilineal society that resides in southwest India. They have a unique social organization and culture. Their extended family is among foraging bands, and are formulated of a nuclear family is the basic unit of production and consumption. Culture and religion is one that is serious and all people living under the political jurisdiction are required to follow the state religion. When it comes to kinship, class prearranges children marriages in order to maintain land, wealth, and power within the group. There is still division between the roles between men and women. Men still considered women, inferior and restricted to the household and men are superior and more intelligent. Today life for the Nayar of India is changing the roles of men and women, with technology rising in communities and becoming more educated women are now leaving their homes for employment. As times change with new technology, the people of Nayar never forget the importance of religion and family. I. Beliefs and Values 1. Family 2. Culture 3. Religion II. Kinship 1. Children 2. Ownership of land 3. Marriages III. Gender Relations 1. The roles between men and women 2. Duties portrayed as a community 3. Changes in gender responsibility References: NAYAR FAMILY AND KINSHIP: A STUDY IN CHANGE AND CONTINUITY http://www.isec.ac.in/Nayar_family_and_kinship_A_study_in_change_and_continuity. Pdf Nowak, B., & Laird, P. (2010). Cultural Anthropology. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education. Religion and International Relations http://site.ebrary.com.proxy- library.ashford.edu/lib/ashford/search.action?adv.x=1&p00=Nayar+of+India

Abbey policy holders Essay

But the massive loss suffered by Abbey in 2003 has affected shareholders. At a time where other banks are making record profits (Royal Bank of Scotland recorded 6.2 billion profit before tax9), the Abbey shareholders may not even receive any spare capital that has came from the sale of assets in the wholesale bank. As Abbey sold off over 80 per cent of the assets of the wholesale bank, analysts were hoping that Abbey could return between 1.2bn and 1.5bn to investors via a special dividend or share buy back. However, the chief executive of Abbey, Luqman Arnold was said to be â€Å"increasingly cautious† about the amount of cash that would be released due to regulatory changes. Whether or not this will affect the position of the shareholders is still unknown. Customers are an important group of stakeholders for Abbey. They are outside stakeholders. Communicating with them is a vital part of Abbey’s strategic plan. They do this by advertising on various mediums, (television, radio, etc). This has proved successful in the past, as Abbey have won various awards for their â€Å"Plain English† approach. This strategy of not using banking terminology was very successful. However, should customers not be satisfied, there is also a customer relations unit available to help solve disputes. But a recent development regarding profits has upset many customers. For the second year in a row, those customers with a â€Å"with-profits† policy will not receive their annual bonus. There will also be higher exit penalties for those who choose to leave the with-profit policy, which could reach up to 10 per cent. This affects nearly 400.000 of Abbey policy holders.  According to Abbey’s employee report â€Å"Employee involvement and effective communication remain vital to {our} success.† 10 There are various means of communication, from an intranet site, to a quarterly magazine (abbeyview). There are a growing amount of concerns among the staff in Abbey however, in the amount of job losses that are occurring within the organisation. As part of their return to traditional banking, Abbey has been cutting a vast number of jobs, many in the fund management sector. Many jobs have gone abroad to India. This has caused conflict not only amongst employees, but among the general public also, who are outside stakeholders of Abbey also. They see it as downsizing and taking jobs away from Britain. Recently, eight executive directors of Abbey have been paid à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2.8 million made up of cash bonuses and shares between them, at a time when the company has suffered massive losses. The bank’s staff got an average of about six percent of their salary as a bonus last year, which was a rise of two percent from a year earlier. A member of the ANGU, (Abbey National General Union) said â€Å"Staff were very pleased with the bonus that was paid out in a difficult year. However, in light of what management received it wasn’t very much†. This could lead to further problems in the future. Conclusion Abbey are still in the middle of a three year turnaround, so are asking their stakeholders to bear with them. But with the massive losses, and the seeming disregard for employees, shareholders and customers alike, they may find that it will take longer than three years to have their strategy.

Motivation: Theory and Practice Essay

Motivation theories and practices remain as one of the most difficult subject to understand. In order to fully comprehend this topic, one must go through several disciplines and enormous research. This is especially crucial in the workplace. There is no methodology that is more efficient in increasing productivity than using motivation. Despite the importance of practicing motivation theories, it is still an area that very few have ventured in. One of the many reasons behind the reluctances of managers to carry out motivation theories is due to the complexity of understanding human behavior (Landy & Conte, 2007). Therefore, it is safe to say that most theories of motivation deal with the different aspects of human nature. This paper is going to look at 4 different motivational models. They are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Aldefer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s two factor theory as well as Adam’s equity theory. The similarities and differences of these models will also be discussed in this paper. This is the prerequisite knowledge for the next section of the paper that is application of these theories by managers in order to help reduce the problem of involuntary absenteeism in the workplace and employee disengagement. Motivational models  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Nobody can make a dent bigger than Abraham Maslow who introduces the hierarchy of needs model in 1940s. There are 4 layers in this motivational model and it is often portrayed in the form of a pyramid (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2004). He believes that certain human needs are dominated over others. Therefore, at the bottom of the pyramid is the most basic and important needs of a human being. This layer consists of fulfilling the physiological needs of an individual such as food, water and air (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2004). Literally, these are aspects that are required to ensure the human survival. After the physiological needs have been cater to, the second layer of the pyramid is satisfying the safety needs. This can be triggered by war or economic downturn whereby a person seeks for personal security such as family and health as well as financial security like employment and property (Montana & Charnov, 2008). According to Maslow, the third hierarchy involves achieving a sense of love and belonging (Montana & Charnov, 2008). This plays true to human’s nature as a social animal. Friendship, family and intimacy play an important role in meeting emotional obligation. The next layer is getting respect from others and building self-esteem (Montana & Charnov, 2008). Lacking in these aspects will lead to helplessness and depression. Finally, at the top of pyramid is the layer of self-actualization (Pride, Hughes & Kapoor, 2004). This is the stage where somebody reaches their full potential in life. One of the major criticisms of this model is the need to fulfill a human’s needs according to a hierarchy, from the bottom to the top of the pyramid. However, in real life, a person can be demotivated as a result from various reasons and not following a certain order. Aldefer’s ERG theory Clayton Aldefer comes up with a revised version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The ERG theory also describes the necessity to fulfill human needs according to an order. Each letter of this model represents the three levels of needs. They are existence, relatedness and growth (Hoffmann, 2007). The existence needs are aspects that are needed to maintain the physical well-being of a person (Pattanayak, 2005). After this has been fulfilled, a person will move on to finding the relatedness needs such as building satisfying relationship with others (Pattanayak, 2005). Finally, a person will seek out his or her needs for growth whereby the competence level is developed and full potential is realized (Hoffmann, 2007). One of the major differences between Aldefer’s ERG theory with Maslow’s motivational model is the amount of flexibility. Although it is mainly concentrating on an individual fulfilling his or her needs progressively, Aldefer also acknowledges that a person may regress to lower level needs as they are easier to reach a level of satisfaction. Besides that, this flexibility also allows ERG theory to justify and observe a wider range of behavior. Therefore, ERG theory understands that different people will have different needs and the order can be changed or even, pursued at the same time. Herzberg’s two factor theory Frederick Herzberg is the psychologist who founded the two factor theory. According two him, there are two factors that play an important role in the enhancement of motivation and satisfaction of an employee in the workplace. They are known as the hygiene and motivator factor (Tosi, Mero & Rizzo, 2000). Hygiene factors are aspects to avoid unpleasantness while working but do not guarantee satisfaction (Tosi, Mero & Rizzo, 2000). This includes good working condition, feelings of job security, quality relationship with supervisor and colleagues, company policy, salary and etcetera. Meanwhile, motivator factors will lead to personal growth as well as job satisfaction (Schermerhorn, 2011). These factors are important in order to motivate employees to work harder and increase productivity. Components such as gaining recognition, opportunity for promotion, given more responsibility and stimulating work, just to name a few, will motivate workers to improve their performances. Herzberg’s two factor theory is similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in terms of acknowledging the necessity to fulfill the requisites so that, motivation can occur. However, Herzberg argues that only the highest level of Maslow’s pyramid, self-actualization, can lead to motivation (Schermerhorn, 2011). The lower needs will only cause dissatisfaction if they are not fulfilled. Adam’s equity theory This motivational theory is named after John Stacey Adam. The equity theory states that there should be an equal balance between an employee’s output and input in order to create motivation, satisfaction and productivity (Miner, 2007). An employee’s input is what and how much they put into the work (Miner, 2007). This includes variants such as effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, flexibility, trust in superiors and personal sacrifice. Meanwhile, an employee’s output is what he or she gets back in return (Jones, Steffy & Bray, 1991). Determinants like financial rewards, recognition, a sense of achievement, praise and job security will be taken into consideration. There is a similarity between Adam’s equity theory with models that are proposed by Maslow and Herzberg. He agrees that subtle factors can affect the perception of an individual towards his or her work. However, the equity theory model is more fluid and thus, creates awareness as well as understanding to better handle wider situations from humans’ multi-faceted behavior (Jones, Steffy & Bray, 1991). Application of motivational theories by managers in the workplace Motivation plays a crucial role in any organizations in terms of increasing productivity. The effectiveness of a company is highly dependent on their employees’ desire to strive for success. On the other hand, demotivated workers can cause several problems. One of them is the involuntary absenteeism in the workplace. This is an indicator of low performance as workers are unable to complete their duty or obligation to their fullest. Another issue with demotivated workers is disengagement. Disengaged employees are not interested or have no passion in their jobs anymore. This feeling will reflect on their poor work performances. This section discusses the application of motivational theories that have been mentioned above by managers to solve the aforesaid problems in the workplace. There are many factors that can contribute to the demotivation of employees. Mainly, this is caused by the feeling of dissatisfaction with their work. One way managers can motivate their workers is through the creation of incentives such as gift cards, giving recognition and orchestrating friendly competitions (Landy & Conte, 2007). Based on Maslow’s motivational model, managers can offer different incentives to help employees to fulfill each need. Therefore, managers should also be aware that each employee is motivated in different ways and requires different incentive plans that cater to their needs (Landy & Conte, 2007). Besides that, employees do not move up the hierarchy at the same time and on the same pace. Apart from that, managers can try to motivate their employees by practicing Herzberg’s motivational theory. Adopting a more democratic approach can actually help to curb problems such as absenteeism and disengagement as employees have a positive view about their jobs (Lussier & Achua, 2009). One way is to give the workers a variety of tasks to perform. This will make the job seems more interesting and less mundane. Managers should also not be fraid to challenge their employees with more complex tasks. This can be stimulating and create a sense of accomplishment when employees are able to complete them. Besides that, managers can consider giving their workers more power when it comes to making decisions about their jobs. If a manager practices the ERG theory, he or she will come up with plans that concentrate on the various needs of the employees at one time in order to motivate them (Lussier & Achua, 2009). The frustration-regression step should also be taken into serious consideration (Landy & Conte, 2007). Therefore, an employee should not be blamed when he or she takes a step backward in their job performance because the environment does not allow him or her to have the opportunity to grow personally and advance to a higher status. It is important for managers to take care of this situation as soon as possible because frustrated employees who are not satisfied with their jobs will lead to demotivation after a prolong period of time. This is when employees have the tendency to be absent or disengage from their work. Finally, managers who like to apply Adam’s equity theory in order to motivate their employees should be aware that there must be a fair return to compensate for the work done by their employees (Lussier & Achua, 2009). However, this can be rather confusing as each employee has different notions on what constitutes a fair deal as it is often injected with personal values by the workers (Landy & Conte, 2007). For example, a single working mother may accept a lower salary to trade for shorter working hours so that, she can spend more time with her family will consider this to be fair. Besides that, an overly generous manager who pays excessively to his or her employees can also create an imbalance in the input and output scale. An overpaid employee has the tendency to decrease their productivity and feel demotivated. Conclusion This paper has looked at four different motivational theories. They are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Aldefer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s two factor theory and Adam’s equity theory. Besides that, a brief discussion on the imilarities and differences of these motivational models are also included in this paper. A thorough understanding in this area is crucial for managers in handling demotivated employees. Effective application of motivational theories will solve various problems such absenteeism and employee disengagement. Employees who are satisfied and motivated can increase the productivity of their companies. In a nutshell, managers who can create a motivated working environment by making use of the study in huma n nature will be able to reap the benefits.

The Concept of Criminal Justice and Society Essay

The Concept of Criminal Justice and Society - Essay Example It has become a known fact that the Westwood Community has some serious issues of illegal youth activity escalating. Underage drinking and illegal street racing have begun to create an unsafe environment for not only the young people involved but the residents of the neighborhood in general. To combat this issue the SARA method has been placed into affect to try and analyze and distinguish the causative factors into the behaviors that are currently taking place. An in-depth study of the Westwood community showed that the young people involved in deviant activities were being influenced by outside factors that were not found to be a part of the neighborhood. Officers investigating these activities believed that the young people were not looking for trouble necessarily, but rather experimenting in the behaviors. However, their actions showed that they were putting a great risk of endangerment onto their own lives, as well as innocent drivers on the streets. The officers also noted that the age range of the drinking behavior seemed to be situated around youths who were in the bracket of 13- 18 years of age. The occurrence of underage drinking is normally found to be in this category, as well as in the 12-20 years of age population, and the 18-20 age group population (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2006). One of the main detectable factors leading to the drinking had a lot to do with the peer pressure that was observed from a dist ance by the investigating officers. Unfortunately, this is one of the prime reasons that young people begin to drink initially. Gathered data details that a number of fourth graders, and a good percentage of sixth graders felt pressurized to drink, and if they didn't they were told they would get picked on and ridiculed in front of their friends during school (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2006). The investigation team has decided to discuss the underlying causes and conditions with the community action team of Westwood in the hopes that a reliable and effective plan can be put in place to put an end to the activities occurring. The four main concerns that have been pinpointed are seemingly acceptable in order to move forward to correct the problems before they escalate, or someone gets hurt. Underage Youth Driving while Drinking Community Disturbance Promoting a Danger to Other Members of the Community Possible Criminal Damage Taking Place Analysis The investigating officers are planning on making a schedule to observe exactly what times and days the juveniles are gathering together to engage in the street racing and drinking. It is believed that by doing this, more identifiable hotspots can be pinpointed in other areas of the community, and the main causative factors will be readily identifiable. By investigating the causes, the investigation can move further and finally be able to try and take control of the situation by coming to a credible and logical way of putting an end to the illegal intentions of the juveniles. Highlighting the days on which the activity is most prevalent will help in determining when to use legal means to get the disorder stabilized and finally under control. One main cause for the street racing has already been

A Romantic Dinner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Romantic Dinner - Essay Example Outside, the landscape had changed. Where once there were the brash, insistent reds and greens of late summer now were the glamorous, rich shades of ochre, crimson and orange. Lisa stepped into her thin shoes and let the door slam shut behind her, leaving behind the cheer and light of her kitchen for the valley that was topped by the glorious shades of a sun setting behind the mountains. Her worn, cotton dress, whose colors had mellowed from being hung to dry in the sun, swished around her ankles. Twigs snapped like matchsticks beneath her feet as she walked towards the silvery sheen of the lake. From within the basket could be heard the faint clink of glass and silverware. Lisa paused and smiled even brighter at the figure sitting on a blanket by the lake. She hadn't seen Colin for over three months while she had been away for the summer, visiting her grandparents in Louisiana before school started up again. The days had seemed like years, the weeks had seemed like aeons and the months like an eternity. Lisa had met Colin when the two of them were fifteen. They both hated the same people in high school, which had led to them loving each other, although Lisa had suspected that Colin was gay at first. She liked the way he always had the edgiest jokes, the most intellectual references, the most sincere kindness and the most tasteful pants. He was head and shoulders above the other boys in her class. She knew that her heartstrings were permanently soldered to this boy when, at their upper-crust private school, Colin confessed that as soon as he was eighteen, he wanted to run away from home, join Greenpeace, and "fight eco-terrorism," as he put it. And when Colin was asked by the school basketball coach, "Why don't you want to join the team" and answered with, "Because I don't like you," she nearly proposed. Colin was on his back, staring at the sky. When he heard Lisa's footsteps, he tilted his head backwards, looked at her and smiled brightly, then casually walked over to her and squeezed her as tight as she could. The two of them laid down on the grass, embracing. Colin went back to his sky-gazing, while tapping his black, Converse-clad foot gently to some tune heard only within his head. Between his fingers he twirled a single blade of grass, then rolled it between the square palms of his hands. "I missed you, baby," Lisa said, inhaling the scent of his blond hair. He smelled like Suave shampoo and soy milk."I missed you, too," he said. "What do you have for me to eat Did you make tasty treats for me""I thought you would never ask," Lisa smiled. She sat up and pulled the heavy wicker basket towards them and started sifting through its contents. Lisa was fairly young-just shy of twenty-two-but in spite of that, she had marvelous skills within the kitchen, probably as a result of having an almost unhealthy interest in the domestic arts. She adored quilting, baking, sewing and knitting; her room was always spotless and beautiful, with finely crocheted ecru lace curtains on the windows and a homemade apron hanging on her door. Her dream was to one day own a giant farmhouse with lots of children (six, to be exact) and raise sheep, goats and bees. She envisioned herself making cheese and candles and liked the idea of teaching her children to spin and die skeins of yarn into all t he colors of the rainbow-burgundy, cobalt, sage and blonde,

Interpersonal communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Interpersonal communication - Essay Example However, the scenario has changed rapidly during the last four decades and communication has emerged as one of the key factors whether in a group of people or between two individuals. Since interpersonal communication is an unending process (West and Turner 10), the changes that are noticed in this type of communication are obvious. In short, it is extremely difficult to define what interpersonal communication is, simply because it cannot be bound within a restricted area. Thus, the changes that it has picked in various stages of evolution have become an intrinsic part of the same. Communication is a broad term in itself that incorporates several nuances. As a matter of fact, the factors that affect interpersonal communication require more focus in order to understand and draw conjectures. For instance, Judee Burgoon’s Expectancy Violation Theory is a significant milestone that illustrates non verbal communication in various ways. This theory that demonstrates how non verbal communication comes under the influence of expectations is worth appreciating. The significance of this theory lies to the extent and capacity in which it depicts non verbal communicat ion such as body language and eye contact. Interpersonal communication is intertwined with our daily lives and there is hardly a moment that does not reflect various aspects of this communication, which is substantiated by Turner and West: â€Å"Each day we perform one of the most ancient of all behaviors: interpersonal communication. We head off to work and greet people on the bus, in the office, in the carpool or on the street. We talk to our roommates and discuss last night’s party over breakfast. Or we wake up and soon find ourselves in the middle of a heated exchange with a family member about dirty dishes. Although each of these situations differs, they all underscore the pervasiveness of interpersonal communication in our lives†

Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer by Rembrandt Essay

Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer by Rembrandt - Essay Example The essay "Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer by Rembrandt" analyzes Rembrandt van Rijn's "Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer". The painting depicts that Homer is blind, with his eyes brown voids, which guide the eye into a deep darkness. The sightless eyes of Homer’s bust are innocent and profound, which depicts his face being humble and weak and wearing a simple shift. Aristotle’s eyes are black, and they look wanly, like he knows too much. It makes the viewer feel that time has collapsed, and the viewer is directly communicating with the philosopher the way he communes with Homer. Alexander the Great is depicted in a medallion that hangs from a golden chain in Aristotle neck, of whom he had tutored. It can be noted that Aristotle is contemplating the worldly success worthiness, which is material rewards, as opposed to upholding spiritual values. The gesticulates of the hands, depicted by the sleeves that have cascaded and the show that is playing over t he brow and eyes of Aristotle support the previous interpretation that he does not care about the spiritual values. The paint was painted for Antonio Ruffo, who was great Sicilian collector who also referred the comparison of touch and sight by Aristotle. The bust of Home portrait can be referred to as a legendary figure that comes from three centuries earlier. Therefore, it depicts that Aristotle is contemplating on a portrait that depicts a remote past. The artist wants to acknowledge that to some degree any portrait is a fiction.

Investigation of Equality and Diversity Strategy in an Organisation Essay - 2

Investigation of Equality and Diversity Strategy in an Organisation - Essay Example This essay explores four aspects which represent the meaningful description of HRM: a particular collection of assumptions and beliefs, a strategic force informing decisions regarding people management, the central participation of line supervisors, and dependence upon a collection of forces to shape employment relationship. HRM’s core objective is to make sure the accessibility of competent and committed employees in an organization. The other main objectives are as follows: Societal objectives: To be socially and ethically responsible towards the challenges and needs of the society. The company should utilize their resources in favor of the benefit of society. Organizational objectives: To identify the function of human resource management in bringing the organizational efficiency. Functional objectives: There must be a proper agreement between the needs of the organization and the HRM division’s service. The demands of the organization should be served well by the HRM. Personal objective: To help employees in attaining their personal objectives. Employee’s personal objective can be met when employees are maintained, preserved and motivated. Functions of HRM: To accomplish the above objectives, two types of functions are performed by HRM. The first one is managerial function and the other is the operative function. Managerial function comprises of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. Whereas, the operative function comprises of procurement of workers, development of employees, compensation function, integration, maintenance function, separation function, career development, and performance appraisal. Operative functions are also known as staff functions or service functions. Other functions are performance appraisal and performance management system. The â€Å"soft approach† of HRM is best characterized by the humanist model of Harvard School, laid its emphasis upon value-added feature of HRM. It is nearly connected with a resource-based vision of the organization which considers the unique nature of implied competencies and skills of workers as the main source of economic advantage. It is f ramed by the objectives of a business, but the stress is given on those portions that make workers a distinctive resource, one which is competent in offering the competitive advantage and encourage intrinsic motivation. It treats employees as esteemed contributors towards the organization, thereby, paying attention towards their motivation, building up trust, and providing development prospects.

Explain what the role of education would be in your ideal society Essay

Explain what the role of education would be in your ideal society - Essay Example It also helps develop reasoning powers, judgement and prepares one intellectually for mature life (Ornstein, 2013). The definitions demonstrate that there is learning involved, that education is a process centered towards making an individual’s life better. Education takes different forms, informal education, formal education and the now widely spreading e-learning. Irrespective of the form, the outcomes are more or less the same (Collier, 1998). The importance and value of education in many countries and governments is being emphasized, and as a result, some of the countries have their constitutions providing for ‘Right for education (Bruner, 1996). Education dictates a large part of what we do, how we think, the decisions we make and how we relate with others. Most countries have the same four levels of education, kindergarten /nursery level, primary education, secondary education and higher/tertiary education for the adolescent and teenage years (Cossin, 1997). Social purposes of education Research shows that education has a great role in shaping the person that one is, and the person that one will become (Goodland and MacMannon, 1997). It has many and important social purposes as seen herein. It helps in developing, enhancing and completing the socialization process. Parents and guardians now rely and expect the school to complete this process for their children. Young children spend most of their time with their teachers, and at the learning institution, the socialization process is enhanced. The child learns to relate with fellow people, learns basic respect actions like salutations, excusing themselves among others. Children learn how to live and relate with others in school (Nikollakoki 1997). Education helps get rid of negative attitudes and behaviors acquired during the early age. A child who comes from a family where parents raise their voices on each other, or where the father abuses the mother, or where honesty has not been instilled i s most likely to have learned some of these behaviors. Education however, is a correction tool, it will help correct this wayward child and teach them the good values instead (Cossin, 1997). Education develops the personality of a person. Children with low self esteem are taught to believe in themselves and made aware that they have power to be who they want (Barnett, 1991). In addition, education has a social purpose of training in skills (Lewis, 2011). Schools that offer practical classes like cooking classes, carpentry, art and acting helps in growing the talents of students. These skills, when perfectly developed are important in building careers. Another social function of education is to pass on culture (Collier, 1998). Culture refers to peoples beliefs, way of life, practices, values and tradition. In whichever form of education adopted, the culture of a particular people is taught. This is done through music, art, literature, drama and oral recitations. Education strengthens and acts as a unifying factor. People are taught how to live with people who have different cultures and beliefs. This way, it promotes peaceful coexistence, which is one of the core values of any society (Acar, 2011). Education has a role of conferring status in different people. Usually, a person with higher education studies is treated different from a primary school person. The higher degree of learning commands more respect. Related to this is the aspect of job placement. The

Western civilization paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Western civilization paper - Essay Example While some causes for doubt were natural processes quite beyond the scope or prevention of the church of the times, such as in the case of the Black Death and subsequent plagues that periodically decimated the European population, others were undoubtedly the result of greed and bids for power, such as could be seen in the Western Schism. Finally, social changes ranged far out of the control of the church through a variety of factors. A growth in the population leading up to the reformation, coupled with significant changes in economic structures as agrarian workers moved to towns and villages began to produce a more literary public. This was encouraged by the invention of the printing press that made the production of books faster and more economical and thus making them more accessible to a wider audience. This, in turn, promoted the spread of Humanitarian ideas throughout the general public following a period of church failures. Thus, while it can be argued that Martin Luther was t he biggest catalyst for change, he was heavily assisted by a variety of factors that came together at just the right time and place for his words to have maximum impact. The most recognized figure of the Protestant Reformation is that of Martin Luther (1483-1546), although this was not necessarily what the humble monk envisioned when he posted his 95 theses in 1517. His early life was spent in preparation for a career in law, but his adolescence gave him a jolt of divine inspiration when he was struck by a bolt of lightening and he turned to a life of serving God. Reports indicate he was a very devout monk, pious and humble, devoted to discovering God. This is revealed in his letters as he addresses the Archbishop regarding his concerns over the sale of indulgencies. Despite his strong feelings on the matter, he still addresses the Archibishop with excessive-seeming humility: â€Å"Spare me, More Reverend Father in Christ and Most Illustrious Prince, that I,

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Essay Example for Free

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Essay The development or the growing-up process of a child has been considered as the most critical and crucial part of a person’s life. It is in this stage where most changes take place which determines the strength or weakness of the foundations of one’s skills and capabilities as he or she grows up. Human development has also been an interesting topic or research in the field of psychology over the years. Theories and concepts have been formulated and developed in order to create a wide understanding of the process of human development as it plays a significant part in a person’s foundation as an adult. The developmental process of a child includes several aspects like the physiological, emotional, and cognitive development. In this paper, the focus shall be on cognitive development and the process of language acquisition, as proposed and theorized by Lev Vygotsky. What is Cognitive Development and Language Acquisition? Cognitive development is a part of the overall dynamic process of human maturity. In current media, a lot of products like milk, supplements, and health commodities for children have been advertised to contribute on improving the wellness of a child’s cognitive development. This shows how the current society values this aspect of child development with special importance. Cognitive development pertains to how an individual understands and grasps ideas through learned factors and genetics as well. This developmental aspect is made up of five fields, namely, information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development, and memory (Wells, 2008). Understanding the whole cognitive development of a child may not be complete without understanding these core fields. However, this paper shall focus on one area which is language development. The definition of intelligence and cognitive development has also become a popular debate among psychologists like Vygotsky and Piaget. Piaget defines intelligence as the ability of an individual to adapt to his or her environment through several adaptation models which include the concepts of assimilation and accommodation, both of which place stronger emphasis on the individual (cited in Lloyd, 1995). On the other hand, Vygotsky argues that cognitive development refers to the capacity of a person to learn through instruction with an emphasis on the environment. Moreover, Vygotsky saw the capability of individuals to learn through instruction as the basic feature of human intelligence (cited in Lloyd, 1995). In medical terms, language development can be identified as the process wherein the complexity of symbols, sounds, and meanings combined is being expanded steadily. This process shall depend on how a person interprets, understands, and perceives objects and symbols as influenced by his or her environment and learning process (Biology Online, 2005). Among children, especially those of 1 to 2 years of age, the early developments in language can be very well observed in their constant cooing, imitation of adult sounds and words, babbling, and use of shortened words and sentences (Biology Online, 2005). Lev Vygotsky’s Views on the Roots of Though and Language Lev Semenovich Vygotsky is a German psychologist who explained and expounded on the genetic approach to the early developments of thoughts and concepts in human development. He connected the changes and transitions occurring in this process from childhood to adulthood through a series of human developmental stages (Marxist Internet Archive, 1990). Although his theories have been rejected in the United States during the earlier part of the political conflict between the U. S. and Soviet Union, his works still became popular as the Cold War ended up to present date. His works basically revolved around the roots of thought and language. It will be easier to understand Vygotsky’s theories in psychology by understanding the main arguments from which his theories are rooted from. His main arguments about intelligence and cognitions state that, (1) thinking is understood developmentally in terms of its roots and succeeding growth at the individual and cultural levels of analysis; (2) thinking is interceded by semiotic mechanisms like speech which can be considered as the most powerful of such mechanisms; and (3) there are certain thinking processes like problem solving, voluntary memory, and self-regulation which have roots from social processes and interactions (Vygotsky cited in Goswami, 2004). As one may observe, more often than not, Vygotsky used the terms â€Å"speech† and â€Å"thinking† than language and thought. This preference to use such terms was believed to be linked with his perception of speech as a social or shared process (Lloyd, 1995). For Vygotsky, the developments of thinking and speech are two separate entities: thought being non-verbal and language being non-intellectual. However, he explained that during a specific time in a person’s life (around the age of two), the lines of development of these two areas start to meet again to induce the creation of a new behavior (Vygotsky cited in Schutz, 2004). He was able to expound his positions on this concept as he noted that, (1) thinking and speech have different roots at the start of their development; (2) at the beginning, there will be a pre-intellectual stage for speech and a pre-linguistic stage for thought; (3) there will come a point in time when these two aspects shall follow different curves unaffected with each other; (4) at a second point, their curves shall meet where thought will turn verbal, and speech, on the other hand, will turn rational; and lastly, (5) thinking and speech are not always overlying each other (Lloyd, 1995). Vygotsky’s theory has also been particular about the construction of words and acquisition of word meanings. He explains that the formation of word and word meaning is in a way related to how a child perceives a problem in communicating with his or her guardian. Vygotsky claims that word meanings are derived from the problem of not knowing what to call or how to describe a specific object, feeling, or thought, which the child usually asks from an adult (cited in Schutz, 2004). Vygotsky also acquired interest in understanding the possibilities that language may indeed affect how a person thinks. In contrast to Piaget’s focus on children’s egocentric and private speech, Vygotsky dealt with language as a form of social communication which progressively supports both language and thinking process. Applications of Vygotsky’s Constructivist Cognition Concept to a Child’s Education and Language formation Vygotsky’s Language Acquistion Theory has been influenced by the constructivist approach. In constructivism, problem solving is the core idea of all forms of learning, thinking, and development; that is, as a child encounters a problem and discovers consequences for its solutions, he or she eventually forms his or her thinking and understanding of a certain concept (Vygotsky cited in Brewer, 2007). In the constructivist view, prior knowledge plays a big part on how a child will perceive things as he or she grows up; that is, it is important for the learner to be able to construct new information into his or her current knowledge because the information connected to the learner’s prior experiences shall be forgotten easily. In application to real life situations, teachers can try to learn about the children’s prior knowledge about a specific problem or a specific topic which confuses them in order to gauge what the children already know and help them understand different experiences (Brewer, 2007). In relation to language development, Vygotsky also coined the concept of the zone of proximal development, which emphasizes that children acquire knowledge about objects and concepts they see as confusing through directed interactions from guardians, teachers, and parents. He explained that what children learn with the guidance and assistance of people around them appears to be a lot more suggestive of their learning development compared to what they usually do alone (Vygotsky, 1987, qtd. in Lloyd, 1995). Thus, speech and word meaning which is acquired by a child alone may not give him or her the utmost linguistic potential he or she can have. Language development as well as the other aspects of development a child goes through in the early years is highly important regardless of the learning genre or theory followed. Theories like Vygotsky’s language acquisition theory are formulated to give people specific basis of the different developmental processes. A child’s language development is never as plain as teaching him or her words and names; rather, it is a complex process which involves crucial elements and key areas where parents, teachers, and concerned guardians have to focus on in order to help the child realize his or her full potential. References Biology Online. (2005, October 3). Language Development.Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. biology-online. org/dictionary/Language_development Brewer, W. (2007). Learning theory: Constructivist approach. Answers. com. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. answers. com/topic/learning-theory-constructivist-approach Goswami, U. (2004). Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Lloyd. P. (1995). Psychology: Cognitive and Language Development. Leicester, UK: British Psychological Society. Marxist Internet Archive. (1990). Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich (1896-1934). Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. marxists. org/glossary/people/v/y. htm#vygotsky-lev Schutz, R. (2004, December 5). Vygotsky language acquisition. English Made in Brazil. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. sk. com. br/sk-vygot. html Wells, K. R. (2008). Cognitive development. Encyclopedia of Children’s Health. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from http://www. healthofchildren. com/C/Cognitive-Development. html

Americas racial front Essay Example for Free

Americas racial front Essay This scripture, taken from Matthew 15:8, denotes flawlessly what was, what is, but hopefully what will not always be the plight of Americas racial front. In 1964, a Civil Rights Act was passed outlawing segregation in schools and other public places. Following its passage, blatant acts of racism were no longer tolerated in the United States. This meant that to utter racial slurs, and publicly assert ones agreement with racial stereotypes came to be considered distasteful or politically incorrect†. Therefore, though in more covert forms than in times past, racism yet rears its ugly head. Perhaps this is because America, though cloaked in the beautiful garment we refer to as equality, is yet stained with the sin of racism. This fact is most evident in the very places in which it was originally outlawed. One of the many purposes for which this law was passed was to prevent age, gender, and racial discrimination in the field of healthcare. Unfortunately, because discrimination is not a superfluous issue, but rather a serious concern due to its institutionalization, elderly people have died in huge numbers due physicians who did not hold their heal in high enough regard to follow proper (though at times, troublesome) procedure. In addition, homosexuals are often experience horrible bedside manners from doctors who disagree with the way in which they’ve chosen to live their lives, and sadly African American men, women, and children are constantly subjected to second-rate care simply due to the color of their skin. This ugly picture is nothing like the pretty one painted by America for others to see.

Factors Influencing Decisions for Mobile Banking

Factors Influencing Decisions for Mobile Banking 5.1.0 Introduction If financial institutions are to successfully integrate new technology into their service delivery platform, it is essential that they should understand the impact of technology based delivery channels on customer perceptions and behaviour. The industry buzz has driven many financial and non-financial institutions in the Netherlands to take a tactical, just try something and get it up and running quickly approach to mobile banking and payments over the last decade. The research focused on the theoretical framework explored in chapter 3 discussing various constructs that affect users intention to adopt mobile phone banking and payments. The previous chapters have shade light on the major research question of this study which was as follows: what are the factors that could influence the use of mobile phone banking? Various variables such as self-efficacy, perceived cost, perceived risk, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use have been discussed and compared to the data analysis . The Netherlands shows different trends in adoption of mobile banking and payments, the population has all the requisites to implement mobile financial services but there are a number of hurdles that need to be overcome or taken into consideration by any financial institution wanting to setup such a venture. 5.2.0 Model Variables The intention to use mobile banking service is affected by a number of variables as discussed earlier. Speed has indirect influence on intention to use mobile banking. Consumers using mobile banking can perform the simple transactions easily and quickly. The variable speed implies that mobile banking and payment users seek a simple, easier and faster performance. Speed was one of the factors that users put on their wish list as a prerequisite for uptake of mobile banking. With advance of the 3G and 4G networks on newer mobile phone models makes speed a reality. Most users preferred to use SMS as it provides a speedier service. From the data analysis the respondents are not especially concerned with the number of functions provided by a mobile banking and payment functions. The above reason could be that simple functions may be enough for users to meet their mobile banking needs. Most banks in the Netherlands such as Rabobank, ING and ABN AMRO offer basic forms of mobile banking which range from simple transactions to complex tasks. Mobility access is an important feature of mobile banking and payment. This helps overcome time and space limitations of banking. It was obvious that respondents agreed with the importance of mobility access to mobile banking and payment. Perceived usefulness is another important variable that affect mobile banking and payments. There are very many alternatives /competitors to mobile banking in the Netherlands for users to choose from. Most users are reluctant to change their banking methods in the Dutch as they see no perceived usefulness in the mobile banking services provided by the financial institutions. One of the respondents views were as follows: Im choosing the bank which is safe and offer more attractive %. And I dont care about additional services, which are the plus, but not complementary. [sic] Perceived cost also has an impact on users intention to adopt mobile banking in the Netherlands. Mobile banking cannot compete in terms of lower costs. Consumers keeping funds in cash or in a pre-charged card e.g. Chipknip find it cheaper as compared to mobile banking. Most banks provide this service free for specific services. There is also the common end-user perception that many mobile payment solutions are fraught with insecurities. The above table 7 shows variables with negative effect on the adoption of mobile banking and payments in the Netherlands. Perceived cost, credibility, usefulness and risk were found to contribute to slow adoption of mobile banking and payments in the Netherlands. Other factors which come beyond the scope of this study will be discussed in the following sections. 5.3.0 General Issues relating to Mobile Banking and Payment adoption From the data analysis it can conclusively be deduced that mobile banking and payments in the Netherlands can only succeed when they extend the technology and behaviour consumers have already adopted and when their costs are in line with their benefits. The researcher asked the respondents who have mobile phones but dont use mobile banking and payment. The main reasons are as follows: They see no value. There are a number of alternative self-service channels like online banking, ATMs, cards (debit, credit, Chipknip) that allow consumers do most of their banking tasks by themselves already, it is not clear to many of them what additional benefits the mobile channel offers. This can be seen from the comments of one of the respondent as follows: Im choosing the bank which is safe and offer more attractive %. And I dont care about additional services, which are the plus, but not complementary. [sic] They do not know about it. When asked whether the respondents bank offered mobile banking, 26% said they do not know whether their bank even offers mobile banking services, or that they do not know enough about it. The researcher can conclude that retail banks mobile banking and payment marketing efforts in the Netherlands have been less effective. They dont think it is safe. 51% of the respondents agree that mobile banking and payments is risky. Risk could have a considerable effect on the adoption of mobile banking and payment. Most of the respondents still consider the plastic cards as the convenient method of settling their bills as they have never encountered any problems with them. Since there is low awareness and the fact that mobile banking is still in its early stage acceptance among the consumers has been very low. They think it is expensive. Confusion about the cost of mobile banking and payment is also another hurdle affecting its adoption. Each provider of mobile financial services comes up with their own cost structure. The researcher believes most consumers are not clear about what their bank will charge them or other financial institutions. It could be argued that price has certainly been an obstacle for mobile financial services to become a mass market application in The Netherlands. The reason given is that because it is quite expensive compared to other banking and payment methods, currently it is not adding any value for the customer. Users are young: according to the respondents, mobile banking adoption is highest among ages 21-35 year olds; these are young consumers, using their phones more for texting than talking. They are referred to as general Y. Many of them mobile banking is becoming a key criterion for where they choose to bank. Most of them said they conceived to switch banks if their bank does not offer mobile banking services. This generation Y is often described as the Mobile Generation because of their obsession with all things mobile and digital, and they are likely to embrace mobile banking and payment in large and ever growing numbers. It can be deduced from the data analysis that younger generations are now beginning to use banking services and traditional banking rules and behaviour may no longer apply. Cash, the first mover advantage: although the Netherlands has the highest debit card penetration in Europe, cash is still the preferred payment method of choice for almost all low-value transactions. There has been a push for more debit card transaction leading to the decrease in cash transactions. Various electronic purse initiatives have been pursued leading to one standard electronic chip-based purse called Chipknip. Its usage however is relegated to specific use cases e.g. parking machines, coffee machines and has not had a wide uptake in traditional retail environments, where it was intended to decrease the number of cash transactions for smaller ticket items. 5.3.1 Create awareness of useful applications among young consumers Mobile banking and payment still faces considerable hurdles in Europe, including consumers diverse mix of handsets and low adoption of mobile Internet services in general. But many financial institutions are shooting themselves in the foot by developing costly mobile banking services, only to launch them without a clear strategy, and then failing to promote them adequately. Remarkably, only a few banks like Rabobank, ING, ABN AMRO even mention mobile banking on their retail banking home pages. Banks and other financial institutions who want to encourage wider mobile banking adoption need to do the following: Firstly, broaden awareness Potential mobile banking users are confused about the benefits, the offer, the cost, the security, and the technology. More marketing needs to be emphasized before and after launching of these new innovations. One way which is easy and inexpensive vehicle for this is the financial institutions own Web site and within the online banking application. They should lay out relevant usage scenarios and use rich media like online video to educate potential users about scenarios where mobile banking and payment adds value. This could be very relevant in enabling the users be well informed about the new offerings and objectively weigh the perceived value over other channels. Secondly, targeted at the young technology-savvy online bankers The study has clearly shown that the mobile banking and payment is most popular among the young generation. As already indicated, most of them said they conceived to switch banks if their bank does not offer mobile banking services. This generation Y is often described as the Mobile Generation because of their obsession with all things mobile and digital, and they are likely to embrace mobile banking and payment in large and ever growing numbers. The typical early adopters according to this research are young males with above-average incomes who use the Internet daily. European banks and other financial institutions should think along these lines. Thirdly, focusing on simple applications with timely and location-relevant benefits What applications should banks and other financial institutions stress? Forrester research (2009), has long argued that to create compelling value for customers, companies should deliver mobile content that is timely, location-aware, and actionable. The first mobile banking services people in the Netherlands have adopted are simple and timely mobile services like balance checks and SMS alerts. It is important that mobile financial providers focus on simple transactions such as SMS about ATM locations, ticketing, parking, vending machines, customized video application (pay per view) among others. 5.4.0 Conclusion As discussed in Chapter 2, the literature review, the Netherlands are a typical giro country that heavily relies on the use of credit transfers and direct debits in retail banking and payments. It can also be reiterated that existing banking and payment methods (e.g., cash, cards) already meets consumer needs. In order to persuade consumers to change their behaviours the offerings will need to have some essential benefits over currently available alternatives: more convenient, cheaper, quick, secure and efficient. In Europe and specifically the Netherlands, there is a strong interest by key stakeholders in making mobile banking and payment successful. Exploring the factors influencing the use and adoption of mobile banking and payments is quite important for the key stakeholders who might need to improve and validate their services in order to satisfy more customers and eventually make profits. The research adopted TAM in the Netherlands context to investigate the research questions and achieve the objectives. It can be concluded that the research constructs of perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived risk, convenience, speed, cost and self-efficacy were successfully used to explain the variance in the intention to use mobile banking and payments in the Netherlands. In order to attract mass market banks and service providers should improve the quality of these services. To take advantage of consumer willingness to use new mobile banking and payment mechanisms, the banks and financial institutions of devices enabled for mobile payment at the physical POS must be able to support mobile transactions that are convenient and easy to use to compete with plastic cards. The Dutch consumers are aware that they have alternatives and they are also more sensitive to security and privacy issues. Mobile banking and payment scenarios can enhance security and privacy. However , if consumers perceive that mobile banking and payment potentially involves loss of privacy, they will not accept it. 5.5.0 Recommendations The study has revealed that there is no compelling value attached to mobile banking and payments in the Netherlands to warrant mass market adoption. Amid the excitement and hype surrounding mobile financial services in the Netherlands, the question remains as to how these offerings will achieve mass market, especially in light of the fact that most of the Dutch find their current banking and payment options quite satisfactory. A number of factors have been pointed out from data analysis that hinder mass market adoption of mobile baking and payments in the Netherlands such as cost, low perceived value, density of banks, security and privacy issues, credibility, lack of cooperation among the stakeholders and the general Dutch banking and payment culture. Most of the Dutch are currently comfortable with their current offerings. In order to persuade customers to change their behaviour in the Netherlands which is always a difficult proposition and embrace mobile banking and payments, the offerings will need to have some essential benefits over the currently available alternatives. There are a number of new niches that financial providers should consider and which are experiencing positive response such as ticketing, vending machines, transport, loyalty programs, coupons, and ringtones among others. There is a huge potential in the Netherlands which has not been tapped, there are all ingredients for successful deployment of mobile banking and payment such as high penetration of mobile phones, high literacy levels, good infrastructure and high speed Internet connectivity all when combined with positive consumer attitude can easily turn a mobile financial service into a mass market. In order to determine whether a new offering represents a market opportunity, financial institutions should consider projected ma rket size, the maturity and complexity of the offering, and the number of stakeholder relationships that the institutions will be required to manage, this has always been one of the hurdles in successful implementation of mobile financial services. Mobile banking and payment, as has been demonstrated in this study, has gained non-negligible relevance for banks and other financial institutions today. For example, developments in the banking sector, e.g. increased competition on account of technological developments coupled with the process of globalisation have produced new challenges for banks. Mobile Banking therefore, presents an opportunity for banks to retain their existing, technology-savvy customer base by offering value-added and innovative services which might even help attracting new customers. 5.6.0 Research Limitations This study was conducted to find the factors influencing intentions to adopt mobile banking services in the Netherlands. As such, there is still room for further investigation into the adoption of mobile banking services especially focusing on other aspects apart from the consumers. There are some limitations associated with this study. The main focus of the research model cannot conclusively explain whether there is a market for mobile banking and payments in the Netherlands. The variables self-efficacy, perceived cost, perceived risk, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use only focuses on the consumer but in reality there are many stakeholders in the market who also need to be investigated such as the government regulations, interoperability, competition, infrastructure and technology among other factors. Another limitation could be the type of respondents utilized in the research. In as much as the study utilized questionnaire, most of the respondents were from Maastricht which might not be a representative of the mobile banking and payments consumer population in the whole Netherlands. The researcher had limited time and resources to explore the general Netherlands population. It can also be stated that the researcher was also biased to the student community in Maastricht as they were more likely to use and adopt mobile banking and payment. The participants were randomly selected which helped reduce bias towards the research outcome thereby increasing the credibility of the feedback. 5.7.0 Future Research It will be interesting to investigate the kind of result similar studies would produce in other Western European nations in modelling users attitude towards mobile banking and payments. Since the introduction of the European Union and Euro currency it could be interesting to investigate what factors could be hindering the uptake of mobile banking and payment in other Euro member countries. Mobility and one currency could be a key reason to undertake similar studies in the European Union for mass market adoption. A further study could also be carried out to investigate the role of other stakeholders such as merchants, government, banks and mobile operators among others in influencing the adoption of mobile banking services among the consumers. The role of government is considered as one of the most important contributing factors to the slow uptake of mobile financial services. Further research is required here. Since Mobile banking and payment is still relatively new in the Netherlands, more research needs to be carried out to measure the actual adoption rate of mobile banking and payments. Consumer behaviours and technology are not static; they keep on evolving hence more research need to be carried out to establish the adoption trends over time which can be used to predict the future that will be useful especially for potential investors.

Anorexia Nervosa :: essays research papers

Self-Image: Anerexia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa is a potentially life-threatening eating disorder characterized by a lack of self-esteem, an intense fear of becoming obese, and self-induced starvation due to a distorted body image (Durham, 1991). Anorexia can occur later in life, but it is most common in girls between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. According to the Center for Change, recent estimates suggest that 1% of Americans within this age range will, to some degree, develop anorexia and 10-20% will eventually die from related complications. I have experienced this deteriorating disease from a bystander’s point of view. After making a pact with my friends to get physically fit for the summer, the four of us exercised and dieted daily for nearly four months. I never thought that this effort to become healthy (or just look good in our bikinis) would have such dire consequences. While everyone ended this exhaustive diet plan, one of my friends became obsessed with her body image and without our knowledge, gradually developed the eating disorder anorexia nervosa. She went unnoticed for several months because she masterfully disguised her eating habits by consuming large quantities of fruit, vegetables, and salads in our presence while secretly fasting at home. Moreover, in spite of her attitude toward eating, she took an avid interest in buying and preparing food for us. Looking back, I think that we were all anorexic to some degree. Personally, I was 16 years old, 5’7 and only weighed about 105 pounds. If I ha d lost a couple more pounds, I would have been 25% below my normal body weight, which would be enough to also diagnose me with anorexia nervosa (Shaw, 2002). The majority of people who suffer from anorexia begin, as we did, with an innocent diet that gradually progressed to extreme and unhealthy weight loss (Shaw, 2002). Unlike normal dieting which stops when the desired weight is reached, people who become anorexic atribute positive feelings to their ability to control their weight and become dangerously preoccupied with food and fear weight gain. Research suggests that stringent dieting can play a key role in triggering eating disorders. Adolescent and young adult women are more vulnerable to these disorders due to their tendency to go on strict diets in order to achieve an â€Å"ideal† figure (Lehrman, 1987). Even thought the cause of anorexia nervosa is not known several different studies suggest that social attitudes toward body appearance, family influences, genetics, and developmental factors are possible contributors to anorexia (Selzman, 1999).

Diabetes Mellitus :: essays research papers

DIABETES MELLITUS In the United States, about 16 million people suffer from diabetes mellitus, although only half of these individuals are diagnosed. Every year, about 650,000 people learn they have the disease. Diabetes mellitus is the seventh leading cause of all deaths and the sixth leading cause of all deaths caused by disease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diabetes is the most common in adults over 45 years of age; in people who are overweight or physically inactive; in individuals who have an immediate family member with diabetes; and in minority populations including African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans. The highest rate of diabetes in the world occurs in Native Americans. More women than men have been diagnosed with the disease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Diabetes can develop gradually, often without symptoms, over many years. It may reve al itself too late to prevent damage. In fact, you may first learn you have diabetes when you develop one of its common complications – cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, or vision problems.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Diabetes is a condition that occurs because of a lack of insulin or because of the presence of factors opposing the actions of insulin. The result of insufficient action of insulin is an increase in blood glucose concentration (hyperglycemia). Hyperglycemia is the unused glucose that builds up in your blood. Many other metabolic abnormalities occur, notably an increase in ketone bodies in the blood when there is a severe lack of insulin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The condition may also develop if muscle and fat cells responds poorly to insulin. In people with diabetes, glucose levels build up in the blood and urine, causing excessive urination, thirst, hunger, and problems with fat and protein metabolism. Diabetes mellitus differs from the less common diabetes insipidus, which is cause by the lack of the hormone vasopressin that controls the amount of urine secreted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The earliest known record of diabetes on third dynasty Egyptian papyrus by physician Hesy-ra; mentions polyuria (frequent urination) as a symptom in 1552 B.C. In the 16th century, Paracelsus identifies diabetes as a serious general disorder. In the Early 19th century, the first chemical tests developed to indicate and measure the presence of sugar in the urine. In 1919-20, Allen establishes the first treatment clinic in the USA, the Physiatric Institute in New Jersey, to treat patients with diabetes, high blood pressure, and Bright’s disease; wealthy and desperate patients flock to it. On January 23,1922, one of Dr. Collip’s insulin extracts are first tested on a human being, a 14-year-old boy named Leonard Thompson, in Toronto; the treatment was considered a success by the end of the following February.

Grapes of Wrath :: Essays Papers

Grapes of Wrath2 In the Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck uses intercalary chapters to provide background for the various themes of the novel, as well to set the tone of the novel". The turtle is a metaphor for the working class farmers whose stories and struggles are recounted in The Grapes of Wrath. In Chapter 3, the turtle plods along dutifully, but is consistently confronted with danger and setbacks. Significantly, the dangers posed to the turtle are those of modernity and business. It is the intrusion of cars and the building of highways that endanger the turtle. The truck that strikes it is a symbol of big business and commerce. â€Å"The turtle entered a dust road and jerked itself along, drawing a wavy shallow trench in the dust with its shell† (pg 21) shows that the Joad family that will soon be introduced will experience similar travails as the turtle, as they plod along wishing only to survive, yet are brutally pushed aside by corporate interests. Chapter 7, another intercalary chapter critiques yet another part of the business system. The owners of the car dealerships mean solely to exploit impoverished buyers. They do not profit from selling cars that will last, but rather from finding the most ill-used vehicle, giving it the appearance of reliability, and pawning it off on desperate farmers wishing to get to California. There is no compassion in the car sales, but rather a perpetual cycle of exploitation. This indicates what the Joad family must certainly have experienced to get their car to go west, yet places it in a larger context. The chapter makes it clear that they are not the only family to experience this. As the Joad family faces the same trials that the turtle faces, and as the desperate farmers have to deal with car dealerships, the intercalary chapters help to set the tone of, as well as integrate the various themes of The

Electronic Health Records Essay

Implementing a new electronic health records (EHR) system to replace manual records is an extremely complicated task. EHRs use complex algorithms to exchange patient data among different physicians and departments such as a pharmacy and laboratory. EHRs are becoming popular because employees and patients can access records anytime and anywhere. Patient drug alerts are also part of the system to warn emergency room and intensive care nurses about potential drug reactions. A needs assessment is a systematic procedure to determine what components are required for EHR implementation to prevent failure of the highly costly investment. Although EHR systems have been shown to dramatically reduce human error, proper assessment before undergoing the implementation process is critical or errors and costs could actually increase. An EHR assessment must be completed before the software packages can be selected to ensure it is conformed perfectly to the specialized needs of the hospital. According to the California Medical Association the assessment has two steps: 1.) Readiness Assessment; and 2.) Work Flow Analysis (Ginsberg et al., n.d.). The assessment should be done by a seasoned group of engineers, physicians, lab workers, billing staff, pharmacists, and nurses to collaborate so that each department increases patient safety and efficient care. The assessment should include a web-based demonstration that allows all stakeholders to identify gaps that would hinder their job responsibilities. Once the needs assessment has been done and vendors chosen as potential suppliers, the readiness assessment should begin. One of the most important data to collect is financial resources. Are more physicians going to be  hired that will increase training costs? Can the organization truly afford the upstart investment and ongoing computer support? Space considerations are also critical to evaluate because most closets are too small for the new EHR platforms that have huge servers. High-speed internet capabilities are a must for EHR data exchange between stakeholders. Moreover, are existing medical records planned to be thinned to put the data into the new system? If so, data needs to be destroyed according to HIPP protocol to protect patient confidentiality. The work flow analysis portion of the needs assessment looks at step-by-step procedures. Examples are scheduling, diagnostic tests, and reviewing tests, prescribing medication, clinical notes, and billing data (Ginsberg et al., n.d.). Other data to be analyzed for the EHR system should be medical history forms, lists of current medications vital signs, insurance, and referrals. The flow of steps in this planning process involves network upgrades, expanding server room space, a Medicare fraud plan, selection of three EHR vendors, visiting other hospitals using the systems, negotiating, and finally select the model that is best suited to all stakeholders. A 10-year study done by the Canada Health Info way about who should be consulted during adoption of an EHR system looked at 29 key stakeholders involved in establishing policy (Rozenblum et al., 2001). They found that stakeholders should be consulted from a bottom-up, clinical needs approach first because they will be the heaviest users of the system. This means physicians, nurses, certified nursing assistants, billers, lab workers, and pharmacy employees need to have significant input into selecting what aspects are most important. The number one reason for implementation failure is inadequate involvement of line-worker clinicians (Rozenblum et al., 2001). Therefore, the informatics team must work very closely with these stakeholders. Other critical stakeholders to consult are the finance department to ensure how much funding is available. Patients are also important stakeholders because no one wants their health information linked to a huge system that is insecure and prone to hacking confidential medical records. Policy makers at the executive organizational and governmental level also have powerful sway over which EHR is chosen. Lack of  collaboration among these diverse groups can delay implementation of the system for decades. Appropriate needs assessment provides relevant feedback to upper management. This helps these higher-ups make wise decisions based on financial resources, training needs for staff, vendor choice, and whether or not EHR is even necessary (Hartzler et al, 2013). Upper management is also provided with the ability to analyze which employees should have access to the system (or what parts of the system) to complete their designated tasks. Gaps between â€Å"wants† and â€Å"needs† can also be identified so that valuable resources are analyzed in cost-benefit analysis. Training needs or additional hiring of employees can also be anticipated to prevent glitches in the system due to human error. EHR systems can increase profit margins and protect patients from human error if assessed closely prior to purchase and implementation. References Ginsberg, D. (n.d.). Successful preparation and implementation of an electronic health records system. Best Practices: A guide for improving the efficiency and quality of your practice. Retrieved December 26, 2014 at https://www.cmanet.org/files/pdf/ehr/best-practices-7.pdf. Hartzler, A. et al. (2013). Stakeholder engagement: A key component of integrating genomic information into electronic health records. Genetics in Medicine, 15, 792-801. Rozenblum, R. (2001). A qualitative study of Canada’s experience with the implementation of electronic health information technology. CMAJ, 183(5), E281-E288.

Employee Handbook/Privacy Assignment Essay

Employee handbooks are used to familiarize employees with company policies and procedures. Documented employee acknowledgement of receipt and understanding will strengthen the company’s position by confirming employees were informed concerning policies and procedures affecting their employment including privacy. An effectively prepared handbook will not only avoid employee misunderstandings, enhance morale and productivity but also address any applicable state, federal, and international laws. Employee handbooks should focus on the following three overarching privacy areas: (1) Operating- confidentiality of company information, (2) Employment- personnel files, harassment, criminal convictions, and employment references, (3) Electronic Access Policies- privacy of email, confidential information, passwords, and access of another employee’s email (Employee Handbook Company Policy Manual, 2006). A comprehensive employee handbook will provide a roadmap to guide associates th rough the maze of company policies and procedures. The company’s position in response to privacy rights issues should consider and ensure compliance with common law, statutory requirements, and international law, if applicable. Bennett-Alexander and Hartman define statutory claims as follows: State legislatures have responded to the issue of private sector employee privacy in one of four ways: (1) Enacting legislation mirroring federal law,  (2) Recognizing constitutional right to privacy under their state constitutions, (3) Protecting employees only in certain areas of employment, such as personnel records or the use of credit information, and (4) Leaving private sector employees to fend for themselves [†¦] (pp. 593-594, 1995/2004) As such, the employee handbook should identify policies associated with confidentiality including whether the company requires employees to sign a â€Å"confidentiality agreement†. In addition, information concerning random searches as employees enter/exit the facility should be conveyed in the employee handbook. In terms of general employment privacy, the handbook should speak to handling of personnel file information, medical records, criminal background checks, and employment references. Further, the employee handbook should provide an assurance in regard to confidentiality associated with harassment complaints including the company’s investigation process. Finally, the employee handbook should provide clear expectations and procedures in regard to privacy of email, access of another employee’s email, confidential information, and passwords. Electronic access policy information should include the company’s position in regard to monitoring employee’s use of business information systems. The definition of privacy by Schoeman (cited in Hansson and Persson, 2003) states, â€Å"a person has privacy to the extent that others have limited access to information about him, limited access to the intimacies of his life, or limited access to his thoughts or his body† (p. 3, para. 2). Team B’s objective to employee privacy is to have respect for the individual(s). The information collected from an employee is used for the purpose of the job only. This includes information for benefits and medical issues. Unless there is written permission from the employee otherwise. Employee privacy is very important in today’s changing environment. Privacy boundaries may vary from state to state. According to Webster (cited in Hillstrom & Hillstrom), Searches and seizures-an employer has the right to inspect personal belongings (bags, purses, briefcases, cars, lockers, desks, etc.), except when the employer has created a reasonable expectation of privacy. These expectations can be raised if the employee is given a key to a desk, or if  the employer has disseminated a written policy explicitly stating that it will not make such inspections, Monitoring, computer, e-mail, internet, and fax use-businesses have some significant rights in this regard, since they own the equipment. But if these resources are knowingly made available for private employee use, then a reasonable expectation of privacy has been created and personal data placed and maintained on that equipment can be withheld from the employer, Monitoring telephone calls-companies are allowed to monitor calls to make sure that they are business-related and to record them for training purposes, Surveillance and investigation-many surveillance methods (cameras, ID checkpoints, etc.) are legal, as are investigation of employees, provided that they are reasonable and undertaken for work-related purposes, and Drug testing-these policies have been validated by the courts, although criticism of the practice remains intense in some quarters. Drug testing is a popular measure in many industries, and it is practiced by perhaps seventy percent of large American companies. Small businesses, however, are less likely to embrace this technology because of expense, nature of business activity, and concerns about wo rkforce reaction (Reference for Business, p. 1-2, para. 4-8). Employee Handbook: Privacy Workplace Surveillance Information systems are provided for the express purpose of supporting business activity. As such, all use of company systems including email communications are the property of ABC Company. Employees are generally not permitted to use business information systems for personal use. Personal use is permissible if (a) Management has approved it; (b) it does not consume more than a trivial amount of system resources; (c) it does not interfere with employee’s productivity; and (d) it does not preempt any business activity. Electronic mail systems are not to be used for such purposes as producing or distributing â€Å"chain mail†; operating a business; soliciting for personal, political, or religious causes; or for outside organizations. ABC Company does not guarantee, nor should users have any expectation on  privacy of electronic communications. Users should exercise care regarding the contents of communications. ABC Company maintains the capability to monitor all activity on the company’s business information systems including internet web sites visited. Employees must obtain written permission from their immediate supervisor prior to accessing chat rooms for business purposes. Telephone conversations may be monitored for the purpose of evaluating the quality of service provided to ABC Company’s customers. Drug Testing Current and prospective employees will be asked to submit to drug and alcohol testing per ABC Company policy. Prospective employees will be asked to submit to testing if an offer of employment is tendered. Negative test results for drugs and/or alcohol are a condition of employment. This policy is intended to comply with all state laws governing drug and alcohol testing and is designed to safeguard employee privacy rights to the fullest extent of the law. ABC Company will obtain employee signed approval form prior to administering drug and/or alcohol testing. Failure to submit to testing as a result of probable cause will result in suspension and may result in termination of employment. Any drug and/or alcohol testing requested by ABC Company will be performed by a state licensed laboratory. Each employee asked to submit to a drug or alcohol test will be notified of their results by ABC Company within 2 business days of receiving the lab results. Every reasonable effort will be made by ABC Company to maintain confidentiality regarding results. If the test results are confirmed positive, the employee will be given the opportunity to provide a prescription supporting test findings. ABC Company does not tolerate the use of alcohol or nonprescription drugs on company premises or during work hours at facilities operated by ABC Company. Suspension shall be without pay until the results of the test are obtained by ABC Company. If the results are negative, the employee will be reinstated and compensated for hours not worked as a result of the suspension. Positive test results may result in termination of employment. Every reasonable effort will be made by ABC Company to protect the confidentiality of the  drug test results. Employee Records The purpose of this policy is to ensure that employees who have access to confidential information regarding other employees understand the importance of preserving the confidentiality of such information. This policy applies to all ABC company employees who have access to confidential personnel information and/or are otherwise provided access to such information for legitimate business-related purposes. Employees who have access to confidential information, including, but not limited to, personnel matters concerning other company employees (e.g., compensation, employment-related medical information, retirement benefits, marital status, work performance issues and/or evaluations, etc.) must sign an Agreement Regarding Confidentiality and Non-Disclosure of Confidential Employee Information. Management employees requesting access to such information must submit a signed Agreement Regarding Confidentiality and Non-Disclosure of Confidential Employee Information to the Human Resources Department prior to being granted access to confidential personnel information. Employee information shall not be released to any third party without the written request for release of information signed and dated by the employee and verified by an HR representative. Each request for information shall be treated as a separate inquiry, be limited to the information specified in the document and require separate documentation. Where appropriate or in compliance with laws applicable to an employees specific work location, information will be issued to the appropriate authorities with the proper documents authorizing the search and seizure of said information. References Bennett-Alexander, D.D., & Hartman, L.P. (2004). The Right to Privacy and Other Protections from Employer Intrusions. _Employment Law for Business_ (4th). New York: McGraw Hill. (Original work published 1995) Employee Handbook Company Policy Manual. (2006). In _NUPP Legal._ Retrieved September 8, 2006, from http://www.nupplegal.com/polhanman1.html Hansson, S. O., Persson, A. J., Jan 2003, Privacy at Work-Ethical Criteria, _Journal of Business Ethics_, Part 1, Vol. 42, Issue 1, p. 59-70, 12p, Retrieved on September 8, 2006, from EBSCOhost website http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=29&hid=11&sid=6fd07b5a-b177-42f8-bcd3-def12a5cabc0%40sessionmgr101 Hillstrom, L., Hillstrom, K., 2006, Employee Privacy, _Encyclopedia of Small Business_ _Di-Eq,_ Thomson Gale, Retrieved on September 8, 2006, from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Di-Eq/copyright.html

Is the Death Penalty a Deterrent? Essay

No other topic in the field of corrections receives more attention than the death penalty (del Carmen). The United States is one of the few democracies in the world that still imposes a punishment of death, much due to the strength of public opinion. Since 1936, the Gallup Poll revealed only one year (1966) in which a minority of the population favored capital punishment, with only 45 percent support. Support has remained fairly constant at around 70 percent through the year 2000 (National Opinion Research Center). Many supporters’ arguments for the death penalty derive from the deterrence hypothesis, which suggests that in order to encourage potential murderers to avoid engaging in criminal homicide, society needs capital punishment. In other words, â€Å"states with the death penalty should have lower homicide rates than states without the death penalty† (Void, Bernard, and Snipes 201). In 2000, 42 percent of the United States population felt the death penalty acts as a deterrent to other potential murderers (National Opinion Research Center). Scholars have long believed that if the public were more knowledgeable on the death penalty and its effects, support would not be so high (Shelden). Former Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, in his concurring opinion in the case of Furman v. Georgia (1972), stated that American citizens know almost nothing about capital punishment. Further, in what has become known as the â€Å"Marshall Hypothesis,† he stated that â€Å"the average citizen† who knows â€Å"all the facts presently available regarding capital punishment would†¦ find it shocking to his conscience and sense of justice† (Walker, Spohn, and DeLone 230). For example, a Gallup poll was given asking whether respondents supported the death penalty, then asked if they would support it if there were proof that the deterrence theory was incorrect. Twenty-four percent of the respondents showed a change in their support of capital punishment (Radelet and Akers). Background Capital punishment in the United States has gone though periods in which most states either abolished it altogether or never used it, and periods in which it was commonly used (Shelden). The landmark Supreme Court decisions of Furman v. Georgia (1972) and Gregg v. Georgia (1976) rekindled the longstanding controversy surrounding capital punishment (Shelden). In Furman v. Georgia, the Court found that the death penalty, as it was currently being administered, constituted â€Å"cruel and unusual punishments†, in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. This decision suspended all capital punishment in the United States, however, left leeway for states to revise their current practices. Appeals began flowing through the Court and within four years of Furman, the Court made perhaps its most significant ruling on the matter (Shelden). In the case of Gregg v. Georgia (1976), the Court ruled, â€Å"A punishment must not be excessive, but this does not mean that the states must seek the minimal standards available. The imposition of the death penalty for the crime of murder does not violate the Constitution. † The moratorium was lifted and a path cleared for the first execution to take place in ten years. After a de facto abolition of capital punishment, it was reinstated in 1977 with the execution of Gary Gilmore by a firing squad in Utah (Shelden). Currently, 38 states, the federal government, and the United States military continue to execute those convicted of capital murder. Illinois and Maryland have moratoriums placed on the death penalty in their jurisdictions (Death Penalty Information Center). As recent as 2000, a number of jurisdictions in the United States have questioned the fairness and effectiveness of the death penalty. For instance, in January of 2000, Governor George Ryan of Illinois declared a moratorium on all executions after the state had released thirteen innocent inmates from death row in the same time it had executed twelve. Ryan then appointed a blue-ribbon Commission on Capital Punishment to study the issue in greater detail. On January 10, 2003, Ryan pardoned four death row inmates after lengthy investigations revealing abuse of defendants’ rights, including torture during interrogation (Death Penalty Information Center). The following day (also his last day in office) Ryan granted clemency to all of the remaining 156 death row inmates in Illinois, as a result of the flawed process that led to these sentences. According to the Death Penalty Information Center, â€Å"Ryan’s decision to grant today’s commutations reflects his concern that Illinois’ death penalty system lacked uniform standards designed to avoid arbitrary and inappropriate death sentences. † It should be noted that the 156 clemencies did not result in the release of the inmates, since many still face life in prison. Deterrence Theory According to Siegel, deterrence is defined as â€Å"the act of preventing a crime before it occurs by means of the threat of criminal sanctions; deterrence involves the perception that the pain of apprehension and punishment outweighs any chances of criminal gain or profit† (616). The theory of deterrence stemmed from the work of Cesare Beccaria, who has been known as â€Å"the leader of the classical school of thought† (del Carmen 21). Beccaria received a degree from the University of Pavia in Italy in 1758. Upon graduating, he embarked on working as a mathematician, but soon became interested in politics and economics. Beccaria met regularly with Allessandro Verri, an official of the prison in Milan, and his brother Pietro Verri, an economist, in a group of young men who met to discuss philosophical and literary topics (Void, Bernard, and Snipes). In March 1763, Beccaria was given the responsibility of writing an essay on the topic of penology. With little knowledge in the field, he went to the Verri brothers for assistance and drafted the essay. In 1764, his influential essay, On Crimes and Punishments was published (del Carmen). He listed ten principles proposing various reforms to make criminal justice practices more logical and rational (Void, Bernard, and Snipes). Becarria’s work is known to be one of the first wails for reform in the treatment of criminals. His concept that â€Å"the punishment should fit the crime,† was a major contribution to the classical school of thought. Beccaria felt severe punishment was not necessary and the only reason to punish was to assure the continuance of society and to deter others from committing crimes. Further, deterrence stemmed from appropriate, prompt, and inevitable punishment, rather than severe punishment. Regarding the death penalty, Beccaria believed it did not deter others and was an act of brutality and violence by the state (del Carmen). Finally, in one of Beccaria’s ten recommendations he argued that punishments that include excessive severity not only fail to deter crime, but actually increase it (Void, Bernard, and Snipes). The theory of deterrence was neglected for about a century. Then, in 1968, criminologists sparked an emergence of interest when Jack P. Gibbs published the first study that attempted to test the deterrence hypothesis (Void, Bernard, and Snipes). The certainty of punishment was defined, by Gibbs, as the ratio between the number of prisoners admitted for a given year and the number of crimes known to police in the prior year. Gibbs defined severity of punishment as the mean number of months served by all persons convicted of a given crime who were in prison in that year. His research found that greater certainty and severity were associated with fewer homicides for the year 1960. Gibbs concluded that both certainty and severity of imprisonment might deter homicide. Charles R. Tittle analyzed similar statistics regarding certainty and severity of punishment for the seven â€Å"index offenses† in the FBI Uniform Crime Reports (Void, Bernard, and Snipes). Tittle concluded that the certainty of imprisonment deters crime, but that severity only deters crime when certainty is quite high (Void, Bernard, and Snipes). In 1978, the National Academy of Sciences produced a report that concentrated on previous deterrence research and found that more evidence favored a deterrent effect than evidence that was against it. Void, Bernard, and Snipes stated that the deterrent effectiveness of the death penalty is probably the single most researched topic in the area of criminology. In 1998, Daniel Nagin reviewed studies of deterrence and argued that deterrence research has evolved into three types of literature. Of the three, one of these types identified examines criminal justice policies in varying jurisdictions and the crime rate affiliated with the policies to determine if there is a deterrent effect. Void, Bernard, and Snipes recognized that a large number of studies have been conducted regarding this issue; however the results have been inconclusive. For example, the deterrence hypothesis implies that death penalty states should have lower homicide rates than states without the death penalty. As Gibbs and Tittle’s research showed, however, death penalty states have considerably higher murder rates than non-death penalty states. Void, Bernard, and Snipes conclude that, more than likely, this results from states implementing the death penalty due to higher murder rates. Radelet and Akers state that because of little empirical support for general deterrence and the death penalty, most criminologists have concluded that capital punishment does not reduce crime. Furthermore, several researchers have found that the death penalty actually increases homicides (Bailey). Thorsten Sellin, one of the leading authorities on capital punishment, has suggested that if the death penalty deters prospective murderers, the following hypothesis should be true: (a) Murders should be less frequent in states that have the death penalty than in those that have abolished it, other factors being equal. Comparisons of this nature must be made among states that are as alike as possible in all other respects – character of population, social and economic condition, etc. – in order not to introduce factors known to influence murder rates in a serious manner but presently in only one of these states. (b) Murders should increase when the death penalty is abolished and should decline when it is restored. (c) The deterrent effect should be greatest and should therefore affect murder rates most powerfully in those communities where the crime occurred and its consequences are most strongly brought home to the population. (d) Law enforcement officers would be safer from murderous attacks in states that have the death penalty than in those without it. Sellin’s research indicates that not one of these conjectures is true. Further, his statistics illustrate that there is no correlation between the murder rate and the presence or absence of capital crimes. For example, Sellin compares states with similar characteristics and finds that regardless of the state’s position on capital punishment, they have similar murder rates. Finally, Sellin’s study concluded that abolition and/or reintroduction of the death penalty had no significance on the homicide rates of the various states involved. Summary The death penalty has long been one of the most debated issues in the American justice system. Most advocates claim that the punishment protects society by deterring murderers from repeatedly committing their crimes. Additionally, proponents proclaim that criminals have a better chance of choosing not to commit murder if the death penalty is a possible sanction. On the other end, opponents of the death penalty argue that no study has convincingly shown enough evidence of such a deterrent effect. In fact, they argue that most studies have not only shown the lack of a deterrent effect, but have conversely suggested that punishment by death might even have a brutalization effect. In other words, they suggest that criminal executions brutalize society by legitimating the killing of human beings, which ultimately leads to an increase in the rates of criminal homicide. Deterrence basically refers to the ideology that punishing persons who commit crime prevents other similarly disposed individuals from doing so. There are two existing types of deterrence, specific and general. Death penalty proponents argue for the importance of specific deterrence and its preventive effect in protecting society from a second crime from the same offender, who could easily evade or be released while imprisoned. In other words, this simply means that the death penalty takes away the opportunity for the offender to commit murder again. This type of deterrence obviously only deters the concerned offender. In this case, it is certain that punishment by death acts as a specific deterrent in 100% of the cases since a deceased offender will never have the opportunity to recidivate. As for general deterrence, it assumes that the thought of the death penalty as a potential cost of offending acts as a form of dissuasion. It is believed that punishment by death is considered by offenders when they are committing their acts, which would then convince them to not act and therefore result in a lesser probability of them committing their crimes. Additionally, proponents of the death penalty argue that such a punishment is the only solution to deter imprisoned offenders from killing other inmates or guardians while incarcerated. Without the death penalty as a possible sanction, a murderer incarcerated for life would not have anything to lose by killing again.With the death penalty as a possibility, the inmate has his life to lose. Works Cited Bailey, William C. â€Å"Deterrence, Brutalization, and the Death Penalty. † Criminology 36. 4 (1998): 711-33. Cockburn, Alexander. â€Å"Hate Versus Death. † Nation 272, 10 (2001): 9-11. Death Penalty Information Center. What’s New, 2008 del Carmen, Alejandro. Corrections. Madison, Wise: Coursewise Publishing, 2000 Chiricos, Theodore G. and Gordon P. Waldo. â€Å"Punishment and Crime: An Examination of Some Empirical Evidence. † Social Forces 18. 2 (1970): 200-17.